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Robinson in Ruins: politics and landscape on film · December 6th, 2010

“It seems to be easier for us today to imagine the thoroughgoing deterioration of the earth and of nature than the breakdown of late capitalism; perhaps that is due to some weakness in our imaginations.”

Fredric Jameson’s The Seeds of Time (1996)

It is with this sentence that opens Patrick Keiller’s latest offering, Robinson in Space, at once an eminantly political essay on landscape and history, a rigorously experimental filmic object, and part three of a fictional trilogy involving a mysteriously elusive and half-deluded scholarly type named Robinson who undisguisably acts as Keiller’s own projection and fantasy.

The film purports to be assembled from reels abandoned in a caravan left behind by this evasise and shifty character, and is self-described as ‘picturesque views on journeys to sites of scientific and historical interest’. Its narrative backbone consists in the retelling of the unfolding events of the global economic meltdown of 2008, whilst Robinson’s obsession with port statistics has been replaced by agricultural observations and Paul Scofield’s voice-over, which seemed to embody the character in his absence, has given way to Vanessa Redgrave’s slighlty more distant, but no less monotonic and laconic tone.

Made possible through an AHRC-funded project, ‘The Future of Landscape and the Moving Image’, which explores narratives of mobility and the political in landscape and place and received the input of many academics including Doreen Massey, professor of Cultural Geography at the Open University, the film unveils the history and political forces at work in the seemingly peaceful and uneventful rolling hills of rural Oxforshire, quintessance of the English landscape; It challenges notions of the picturesque, confront visions of a rustic past with industrial romanticism and issues of land ownership, and is ultimately a reminder of the socially constructed notion of landscape.

Robinson’s camera stares ininterruptedly at these places, hoping to discern the “molecular basis of historical events”, framing the only visible remain of a decommissioned US airbase: a fire hydrant sticking out in the middle of a field near Greenham Common (the location of Dr David Kelly’s suicide), or highlighting the ruins of the abandoned villages around Hampton Gay, where 16th-century rebellion against the countryside’s enclosure began. Robinson ultimately discovers a vast network of government oil pipelines running unnoticed through southern England, connecting military sites.

True to Keiller’s own brand of meticulously prepared near-static images, the film alternates wide shots and macro, and sometimes reveals the imperceptible, for example in the red paint of a post-box being slowly eroded by use, or a colony of lichens growing at the corner of letterings on the surface of a roadsign.
The camera lingers for long moments, capturing seemingly mundane images of a noisy machine harvesting a field, or swaying foxgloves merely accompanied by birdsong, followed by the precise but silent beauty of a spider delicately spining its web – contrasted with the narrator’s detailed account of the near-collapse of the international banking system – hinting at the dual challenges posed by an economic and ecological crisis. These long shots effectively result in drawing the spectator towards meditative rhythms of thought oppositional to the politically brutal mechanisms outlined in the commentary, bringing intensity and focus and confering a hightened meaning to images of an otherwise mundane materialism, uncomfortably confronting daily reality with remote global events that seem outside any control, asking what efforts of the mind may be required to break free from the hold of market economy with the state of nature.

The Future of Landscape and the Moving Image blog: http://thefutureoflandscape.wordpress.com/


Marcher, parler – Sur la fonction énonciative de la marche. · December 18th, 2009

L’acte de marcher est à l’espace ce que l’énonciation est à la langue: par cette affirmation, de Certeau a attribué à la marche une triple fonction « énonciative » :

  • un procès d’appropriation du système topographique par le piéton,
  • une réalisation spatiale du lieu, de même que parler est une réalisation sonore de la langue,
  • et l’implication de relations entres positions différenciées, des contrats, de même que l’énonciation verbale est « allocution » et « implante l’autre en face ».

« La marche dessine un espace d’énonciation ; elle affirme, suspecte, hasarde, transgresse les trajectoires qu’elle « parle », par les types de relation qu’elle entretient avec les parcours en leur affectant une valeur de vérité, de connaissance ou de devoir-faire. Toutes les modalités y jouent, changeantes de pas en pas, et réparties dans des proportions, en des successions et avec des intensités qui varient selon les moments, les parcours, les marcheurs. » 1

Alors que pour Bailly, la marche semble être un acte qui mêle le matériel au mental:

« Marcher dans la ville, c’est aller avec sa pensée à l’intérieur d’un réseau qui a lui-même la complexité et la vie d’une pensée : […] ou tout […] est traversé par une mémoire flottante dont nous ne faisons que pressentir les lois. »

Jean-Christophe Bailly, La Clairière, p.76

Ce qui « fait marcher »

« Marcher, c’est manquer de lieu. » Car le sens de la marche suit souvent le sens des mots, dans un jeu sur et avec les noms « propres ».

« La marche obéit à des tropismes sémantiques : elle est attirée ou repoussée par des nominations aux sens obscurs, des vocations ou appels qui tournent ou détournent l’itinéraire en lui donnant des sens (ou directions) jusque-là imprévisibles. Les noms propres y creusent des réserves de signification cachées et familières. Ce sont des mots qui perdent peu a peu leur valeur gravée, s’offrant aux polysémies dont les affectent les passants. Ils se détachent des endroits qu’ils étaient censés définir et servent de rendez-vous imaginaires à des voyages. étrange toponymie, décollée des lieux, planant au-dessus de la ville comme une géographie nuageuse de sens en attente. Ces mots opèrent au titre même d’un évidement et d’une usure de leur affectation première. Ils en deviennent des espaces libérés, occupables. » 2


1 Michel de Certeau, Récits d’espace, in L’invention du quotidien, Tome 1 : arts de faire, Gallimard, 1990, p.171.

2 ibid. p. 155

Sur la démarche créatrice du marcheur, voir Thierry Davila: Marcher, Créer. Déplacements, flâneries, dérives dans l’art de la fin du XXe siecle, Editions du Regard, 2002. Résumé à venir dans une note prochaine.


La ville-texte · October 15th, 2009

NB: Studio - Londons Kerning (2007)

Un nom, le nom d’une ville sur la terre, suffit à ouvrir le jeu qui commença sur les atlas de l’enfance. Ce nom, avant d’être un ici, est un là-bas : un motif de rêverie, un buisson d’idées qu’on se fait, d’images mentales relayées par la littérature, les représentations. Puis arrive un jour ou l’on s’y rend et tout le buissonnement confus du « là-bas » s’évapore. L’apprentissage commence : On se rend compte que ce nom, ce qui a fait venir, ce qui a fait rêver, s’il recouvre bien toute la ville, n’en désigne vraiment que le noyau originel. Chaque ville est un ensemble de possibles, prêt à se décomposer en fragments distincts à l’arrivée de chaque nouveau visiteur.

On ne connaît une ville et on ne se l’approprie qu’en la pratiquant – telle une langue. Pour en maîtriser la topographie, la disposition de ses quartiers, il faut plonger dans sa densité kaléidoscopique et entrer dans sa matière. La syntaxe lentement découverte laisse entrevoir sa structure ; Le lexique y prend forme en des phrasés multiples qui se superposent et s’entrecroisent, de façon à la fois réglée et aléatoire, en une forme déchiffrable ou complexe, le long de la grammaire du plan. La ponctuation laisse respirer ses grandes phrases amorphes comme ses éclats lumineux ; Un amas de collages, de parenthèses ouvertes remplies de visions, d’odeurs, d’instants, qui laisse filtrer du sens, ce sursaut d’intensité.

La ville est ainsi une réserve de sens en jachère, de signes que chacun articule, anime, « locute », occulte à sa façon en la parcourant. Une somme d’agencements réalisés, et dans chaque parcours, la réalisation d’un nouvel agencement, d’une nouvelle phrase. La ville, « ionisée » par la démarche qui la traverse en l’explorant, s’éclaire de l’intérieur.
On y forme des suites de mots, des phrases, on établit des repères. Les villes, « pelotes d’histoires », nous exposent à un buissonnement permanent de traces et d’indices enchevêtrés. Chaque ville parle son propre argot secret dont le flâneur reconstitue la trame, le tissu, avec ses moirés et ses accrocs, à la fois achevé et à tisser encore. Cette inextricable complexité de la ville est rendue lisible par l’ascension de l’observateur, qui peut dès lors déchiffrer le texte écrit par ses habitants-marcheurs (Wandersmänner)1, sans qu’eux mêmes puissent le lire.


Le texte ci-dessus est en partie inspiré/condensé de trois essais de Jean Christophe Bailly publiés dans La Ville à l’œuvre, paru aux Editions de l’Imprimeur en 2001 :
La grammaire générative des jambes, p.21 – 34
Le propre des villes, p.81 – 84
La Clairière, p.73 – 79

1 Michel de Certeau, L’invention du Quotidien, Tome 1, p.139


Richard Long – Heaven and Earth · September 4th, 2009

Richard Long - Sahara

The retrospective of arguably the best-known contemporary British artist/walker concludes this weekend at the Tate Britain. Richard Long’s practice has consistently placed primitive mark-making at the centre of the work, exploring relationships between time, distance, geography and measurement in the simplest way: by instigating walking as a means of marking, sensing and measuring the vastness and eternity of the world. Long explains with disarming simplicity:

“my work really is just about being a human being living on this planet and using nature at its source. [...] It’s about the intellectual pleasure of original ideas and the physical pleasure of realising them. I enjoy the simple pleasures of wellbeing, independence, eating, dreaming, and sometimes leaving (memorable) traces.”

Long instituted walking as an act of mark-making on possibly the vastest scale possible, freeing sculpture from the constraints of exhibition: the only remains of the artist’s peregrinations in the land are those pictures and diagrams, strangely similar to strategy maps: photographs of deserted landscapes or plans printed with geometrical figures showing the whereabouts of the artist/walker. His trajectory and purpose are often driven by natural forces: gravity, wind, water flow, magnetism, geology – or by his interest in transference (physics) – the idea of a certain equivalence of places and events on different sides of the world.

Using his foot as instrument for art, expressive and perceptive, the footprint as a testimony of his journey and presence in time and space, Long’s walks become an act of inscription; a reminder that the verb “to write” originates from the practice of incising, as in the inscription of running letters in stone or the furrowing of a track.


Richard Long – Heaven And Earth at Tate Britain until 6th September 2009.


What is place? · July 8th, 2009

stalker

“Old traps vanish, new ones take their place; the old safe places become impassable, and the route can either be plain and easy, or impossibly confusing.”

Andreï Tarkovski, Stalker

As illustrated by Tarkovski’s Zone, the conception of place seems to be constantly evolving, ever-adapting to the circumstances of one-self.
Bergson sees place as “space in which the process of remembrance continues to activate the past as something which is lived and acted, rather than represented”.
Indeed, the notion of place couldn’t exist without memory – or perhaps even outside memory: when we leave a place, we take with us our own constructed and fantasised version of it: for instance, “home is absolutely an imagined or fictiously remembered place that people want to exist, but it exists almost entirely in memory” (Simon Schama). The tension between memory and present experience is epitomized by the feeling of Nostalgia (from the Greek word nostos meaning returning home, and algos meaning pain), which was once recognised as a clinical condition known to have once rendered Russian soldiers incapable of fighting.

In his street-walking itinerancies, Bojan Sarcevic has seeked to highlight the relationships going on between different forms of experience of a place, from tourist to inhabitant: from alienation, to strangeness, to familiarity. The remote and exotic place offers something ‘other’ to those who go there; but the tourists are themselves also ‘other’ to the city’s inhabitant…
On tourism, the sociologist John Urry wrote: “Like the pilgrim the tourist moves from a familiar place to a far place and then returns to the familiar place. At the far place both the pilgrim and the tourist engage in ‘worship’ of shrines, which are sacred, albeit in different ways, and as a result gain some kind of uplifting experience.”
For Erik Cohen, “Pilgrimage is defined by a movement from the ‘profane periphery’ to the ‘sacred centre’”.


Place (Tacita Dean & Jeremy Millar) is released in the Artworks collection, Thames & Hudson.


On paradoxical recognition: déjà vu and alienation · June 17th, 2009

This post is another snippet from Memory, where Hunter describes the experience of déjà vu as an episode of illusory recognition involving two features which seem incompatible with each other: a present event is recognised as having been witnessed before, yet there is a certainty that this is impossible.
In this form of self-contradictory recognising, we believe that what we say, do or see has been done before in the same circumstances, and we feel that we know what will happen next, as if we remember something that hasn’t happened yet. The present moment is saturated with recollective familiarity as we experience an intense feeling that everything around us has happened in the same way before, and seems out of hand. The sensation of déjà vu, if not the result of a severe brain dysfunction, is usually short and infrequent, merely causing mild puzzlement over unaccountable familiarity.
The opposite situation is alienation, in which intimately known situations and persons are experienced as being strange and unfamiliar.

Déjà vu may be experienced when we are visiting some town for the first time: despite having never been there, the streets look strangely familiar, the scene we are witnessing is somehow not unexpected. A rational explanation could be that this place shares similar environmental characteristics with another place we remember.


On the subjective nature of mapping · June 1st, 2009

While we may think of geographic maps as amongst the more objective graphics, Stephen Boyd David reminds us of the subjective nature of mapping in this essay published in Emotional Cartography (Ed. Christian Nold). There is always some degree of subjectivity in an image. The way we see the world is channelled by language (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis), and linguistics have taught us that maps, like pictures and words, do not represent things, but shared ideas of things.

In contrast with the perspective, which needs a viewpoint, the map doesn’t need an onlooker – it is the first panopticon.
However maps do distort and select – because they are made for a purpose: they carry place-names, or indicate a hierarchy of importance. Whereas aerial photography shows the “raw stuff”, a well-made and usable map must be clear and legible, serving its purpose precisely through its selectivity. But some profound distortions go unnoticed because they are embedded in a shared cultural perspective: as the terrestrial globe is unwrapped on a flat surface, Europe is conveniently located in the middle of most Mercator projections. Yet even a globe, considered to be the most direct model of the Earth, has its northern hemisphere “up”, still dominating the under-developed world.
The first level of subjectivity arises from who we are and what we are trying to represent; on top of this is always overlaid our belonging to a wider cultural group: “dominant groups often assume that the shape of their world is the shape of the world.”

Oskar Karlin, Elephant & Castle-centred tube map.

Oskar Karlin, Elephant & Castle-centred tube map.

Where you start a journey is sometimes as important as where you are: Time and space has already been compressed by ever faster mechanised travel, and increased ease of access makes the territory a different shape and size, experienced differently in different places. This is evidenced by Oskar Karlin’s time travel map, showing travel times from Elephant & Castle station, distorting Beck’s original underground map which is itself a heavily deformed representation of the topography giving much greater importance to the central area at the expense of the periphery. The emphasis on connections (or absence of them), the relative proximity of places is reminiscent of space syntax diagrams showing the connections between adjacent rooms in a building, rather than their relative layout as shown in a plan view.

Perspective is another way of prioritising and organising importance: The introduction of perspective in the BBC broadcast weather maps attracted much criticism, not least because it was thought to breach the corporation’s duty of impartiality. The same effect was exaggeratingly used by Saul Steinberg’s 1976 New Yorker’s view of the world to a humorous end.

Tom Carden’s Travel Time Tube Map expands on Karlin’s work by allowing any user to dynamically reorganise the map in order to represent travel times from any station:

Tom Carden, Travel Time Tube Map

Tom Carden, Travel Time Tube Map

A new generation of web-enabled interactive devices has enabled dynamic and on-demand maps to be produced, customised by users to fit their interests, altering the role of map-maker and opening up a map to new expressions, re-introducing objectivity into an object that has become more universal. Portable GPS technologies have further changed the stakes by adding the here and now, making maps inherently personal and embedded in the present.


Download the book (Ed. Christian Nold) from Emotional Cartography.


Revisiting places · May 25th, 2009

In one of the last chapters of Memory, Ian Hunter describes a phenomenon often experienced when one revisits a place not seen since childhood: the place strangely fails to come up to our expectations, and appears to have “shrunk”. Assuming that the place hasn’t changed, why should there be a discrepency between the recall and the perception of a place? The writer gives a poignant account of his own experience (p.276):

“I was motoring through a town which I had last visited twenty-three years before at the age of four. On that previous occasion, I had been taken through a certain school in this town by a relative who was a teacher there. And on several occasions since, I had vividly recollected this tour of inspection, larely in terms of visual imagery. I had recalled the large cement-covered playground in front of the school, the high iron railings, the grey stone facade of the building itself, the class-room on the left of the vast main doorway, and the enormous gymnasium at the end of the lenghty corridor. I still recall being impressed, as a child, with the vastness of the whole building. On seeing the school again, it seemed to have shrunk to such an alarming extent that I had to be reassured by someone else that this was, in fact, the same school. The railings were small, the playground tiny, and the building itself, although moderately sized, diminutive compared with my recollection of it.”

One disappointingly obvious explanation lies in the difference in physical sizes of child and adult at the time of perceiving; the same building is likely to be perceived differently, appearing larger to a child because of their relative smallness, hence everything looking bigger, longer, higher, heavier than it is to an adult.

Another factor is the cumulative experience of similar objects against which perception occurs, forming a constantly altered frame of reference. A child probably has a much more limited experience of large buildings than an adult has had. For the writer, coming into contact with a school for the first time at the age of four, it must have appeared truly enormous compared to the domestic dwelling he has been used to so far.

On top of this can be added the influence of distorted recalling: When memorising, we abstract and retain the dominant characteristics of an object, and by repeated recalling, we are likely to accentuate any characteristics of this object which especially impressed us at the time of perceiving. If a building impressed us as a child by its size, we might over the years recall a progressively larger caricature of this building. Lastly, it seems that the conception of value plays some part in distorting a “treasured memory”, people tending to recall a highly valued object as being larger than it actually is.


What is memory? · May 17th, 2009

In his classic book Memory, first published in 1957 by Penguin Books, Ian M. L. Hunter made some interesting attempts at characterising the processes at work in memory and remembering. He defined and analysed them in those terms:

recalling: reproducing in the present some event from the past. While a person is recalling, they are essentially engaged in selectively constructing the salient characteristics of the original event. This highlights the constructive and selective nature of learning as an active process of registration, in which coordinating relationships are elaborated between old and new. These relationships play a role in subsequent recall.

recognizing: identifying some present event as being familiar from the past.

We sometimes become aware of our attempts at characterising and constructing a framework for remembering past events, using devices like associations of sounds, rhythm, or the context of encounter. By constructing a historical context for the event, we can also localise it in our personal past.

Recollecting constitutes a particularly rich form of recalling, when the warm intimacy of past personal experience is suddenly brought to the surface of the present – see Proust’s madeleine and the idea of involontary memory.

Imaging: experiencing sensory qualities in the absence of appropriate sensory stimulation. Much of our remembering takes the form of imaging, i.e. re-living past complex experiences in vivid sensory terms. We recall the past by reconstructing its sensory characteristics, thus giving us the illusion of going back in time.

The cumulative effects of past experience

The Bartlett experiments1 have highlighted the gradual and ongoing process of filtering / transformation / degradation occuring with memorised events. The retained effects of past experience form an organised system, progressively elaborated into inter-related systems and sub-systems, where events are selected / re-ordered according to their mutual relevance, which in turn informs the way present circumstances are perceived. A person’s memory is a permanently self-modifying system, their cumulative past constantly enriched and updated by the present.


1 Frederic Bartlett was a british psychologist famous for his experiments related to the formation of memory. He conducted a series of studies where subjects were told a story, then asked to recall it after various intervals of time.


Par la fenêtre du train : esthétique du voyageur – spectateur · May 4th, 2009

La fenêtre du train comme appareil de vision en mouvement

Chemin de fer et photographie sont deux inventions pratiquement iso-chroniques, qui semblent intrinsèquement liées : Le train, véritable machine à voir le spectacle du monde en mouvement, pourrait s’inscrire dans la lignée des dispositifs optiques qui se sont succès jusqu’à la naissance du cinéma. Il est pour ainsi dire un instrument de vision plutôt que de locomotion1 ; La fenêtre du train encadre et délimite le champ de vision ; Le déplacement rapide entraîne une nouvelle appréhension de la profondeur de champ, où la vitesse crée un étagement hiérarchisé du paysage. L’obstruction possible du paysage donne lieu a une vision fragmentaire, instantanée.

Le compartiment du wagon et la chambre noire ont la même capacité à isoler l’observateur dans un espace de vision cloisonné2 où seule la vue est sollicitée. Le voyageur agit comme le photographe : le regard vif et encadré, il attend que « les plus riches scènes du paysage viennent se photographier sur la vitre du wagon » (Benjamin Gastineau)3.

Les modifications de perspective, la mobilité glissante du point de vue annoncent la vision dynamique d’un travelling et l’essence cinématique du voyage. Les premiers films étaient d’ailleurs souvent caractérisés par de longues prises de vues ininterrompues de l’espace, réalisées depuis des véhicules en mouvement.4
Dès 1898, le catalogue des frères Lumière comportaient ainsi une trentaine de films tournés depuis des véhicules en mouvement, donnant naissance au panoramique, ou travelling, techniques devenues aujourd’hui tellement communes qu’elles en sont invisible.

Le paysage vu par la fenêtre du train, ainsi soumis au temps et au mouvement, est transformé : L’oeil reconstruit le rapport fuyant entre choses fixes dans une perspective anamorphosée. La notion de perspective unique a été profondément modifiée par l’irruption du chemin de fer et la mobilité du point de vue.5

Premiers voyages, premières peurs

Tout comme les premières projections de films (Arrivée d’un train en gare de La Ciotat), les premiers voyages en train laissèrent une forte impression sur l’imaginaire populaire: des peurs irrationnelles causées par le passage dans les tunnels à la transition soudaine de l’obscurité à la lumière – Les guides touristiques de l’époque recommandaient aux voyageurs de « fermer les yeux aussitôt qu’ils commencent à voir de la lumière, et de ne les ouvrir que très progressivement après en être ressorti. »6

Le déplacement mécanisé permet de se déplacer à des vitesses jusqu’alors inégalées, à laquelle la vue a du mal à s’accommoder : « Tous les objets disparaissent avant qu’on ait pu les fixer ». En premier lieu, si l’on était pas déjà mort dans l’explosion d’une locomotive ou écrasé par un wagon, on craignait que regarder le paysage défiler à de telles vitesses pouvait endommager la vue. Ces premières inquiétudes dissipées,
on se mit à apprécier le paysage qui, en défilant, se résume a des larges bandes colorées. On pensait alors qu’en allant encore plus vite, on obtiendrait du blanc selon le principe du disque de Newton7.

La mémoire du voyage comme expérience cinématique

Par son rythme, le chemin de fer en appelle constamment à la mémoire des espaces parcourus. Il produit une superposition, une stratification des paysages entrevus. Chaque trajet multiplie les perspectives, re-dessine le paysage, à la fois original et procèdant des précédents. Le voyage, comme le cinématographe, lie irrémédiablement l’espace et le temps dans un continuum.

” D’innombrables images séparées, saisies pendant des heures de contemplation, se sont fondues et rejointes dans mon esprit pour former, dans ma mémoire, comme une seule unité. “

Aldous Huxley, Le monde en passant. Journal de voyage [1926], Paris, Vernal-Ph.

Voici ce qu’il reste a posteriori d’un voyage en train : des bribes de paysage, des impression fugitives qui viennent s’enfiler a la suite la unes des autres en une synthèse qui combine les fragments d’autres trajets précèdents. Séquence panoramique : juxtaposition côte à côte d’images prises a des instants différents, plus a même d’exprimer le mouvement, en adéquation avec la nature du déplacement en train.

Cette représentation emblèmatique et schématique du voyage ressemblerait au panorama de la gare de Lyon, qui juxtapose de façon continue les villes les plus significatives du parcours du PLM, chacune représentée par leur monument. Ces points de vue qui sont normalement échelonnés dans l’espace et le temps y sont condensés, annonçant comme la synthsèe d’un voyage qui n’a pas encore été effectué.

La recomposition de l’espace du voyage

Le chemin de fer agit sur le temps et le paysage en les condensant. Ce que recherchait les peintures de panoramas, décomposant le paysage en fragments significatifs pour le recomposer en un tout cohérent.
Les moving panoramas étaient d’ailleurs tout simplement sensés simuler l’expérience d’un voyage en train, au moyen d’une longue toile peinte qui défilait latéralement entre deux rouleaux de part et d’autre de la scène8. Les spectateurs étaient parfois repartis dans des wagons factices. Le dernier grand panorama (le Transsibérien, qui présentait sur un décor défilant a quatre profondeurs défilant plus ou moins rapidement selon leur degré d’éloignement les étapes de Moscou à Pékin) fut installé pour l’exposition universelle de 1900, victime du succès du cinématographe.


1 Clément Chéroux, ” Vues du train “, études photographiques, 1 | Novembre 1996, [En ligne], mis en ligne le 18 novembre 2002. URL : http://etudesphotographiques.revues.org/index101.html. Consulté le 26 décembre 2008.

2 à ce sujet, voir le texte Naval et Carcéral, de Michel de Certeau

3 La vie en chemin de fer, Paris, Dentu, 1861, p.35.

4 Why Did Early Films Move? Discussion au British Film Institute, Samedi 1er Décembre 2007.

5 René Thom, ” Par les fenêtres du train : la notion de référentiel appliquée a l’art de voyager par le train “, François Beguin, ” Paysages vus du train : littérature et géographie “, Revue d’histoire des chemins de fer, n 10-11, printemps-automne 1994, p.19-33 et p.34-38.

6 Christian Barman, Early British Railways, Penguin Books, 1950.

7 Voir Claude Pichois, Vitesse et vision du monde, Neuchâtel, La Baconniere, 1973, p. 56

8 Bernard Comment, Le Moving Panorama, Le XIXe siecle des panoramas, Paris, Adam Biro, 1993, p.34-37.